what kind of offender would be most likely to engage in undoing at a murder scene?
Offender Profiling Explained
By Elisabeth Brookes, published July 22, 2021
When police have very fiddling evidence to keep they volition sometimes enlist the help of a forensic psychologist. The forensic psychologist will use prior knowledge and prove gathered from the scene to build an offender contour.
Offender profiling is an investigative tool that help the identification, apprehension and conviction of an unknown offender by providing the police with a description of the likely social (employment, marital status) and mental characteristics (level of education, motivation) of the offender.
It also provides predictions of who the offender is probable to attack next, where and when and possible interview strategies to elicit information nigh the crimes committed and confession of guilt.
Offender profiles are only as good as the information provided to the profiler. They should exist regarded as one tool amid many to be used past the police force.
In that location are two approaches:
- The summit-down American arroyo: From the data gathered at the crime scene, the investigators tin can identify characteristics of the offender e.thou. lifestyle or personality characteristics. From this the offender is categorised as either an organised or a disorganised offender. It is a top-down approach because information technology attempts to fit crime details under pre-existing categories (typologies).
- The lesser-up British approach or investigative psychology: Starts with small details and creates the big picture. No initial assumptions are made about the offender and the approach relies heavily on computer databases. It can be the trivial details that are ofttimes overlooked that tin can be crucial to the success of a case.
Height Down – The FBI Arroyo
The phrase pinnacle-down refers to an approach, which starts with the big picture and then fills in the details. The Height Down of FBI approach relies on previous experiences of crimes.
This approach was pioneered in the US with the piece of work of Ressler, Burgess and Douglas in the 1970s from the FBI's Behavioral Sciences Unit.
They interviewed 36 sexually motivated series killers including Ted Bundy, the questions used related to factors such as early warning signs and possible triggers.
From the data obtained by the interviews, the data gathered at the crime scenes and exam of the law-breaking itself, they identified typologies. Typologies are categories, groups of offenders displaying unlike clusters of behaviors and attitudes.
In 1980 Hazelwood and Douglas published their account of the 'lust murderer', they advanced a theory that lust murderers are mainly catergorised past 2 types: - Organised and disorganised.
An organised offender leads an ordered life and kills later on some sort of disquisitional life event. Their actions are premeditated and planned, they are likely to bring weapons and restraints to the scene. They are likely to be of boilerplate to high intelligence and employed.
A disorganised offender is more likely to have committed the law-breaking in a moment of passion. There will be no prove of premeditation and they are more probable to go out evidence such every bit blood, semen, murder weapon etc. behind. This blazon of offender is thought to exist less socially competent and more likely to be unemployed.
Constructing a contour using the top-down approach
To generate a profile of the offender, the profiler
- Review the evidence gathered from the crime scene and other material prove
- The crime scene is classified as organised or disorganised
- The crime is reconstructed – based on the evidence gathered hypotheses are made about what has occurred in terms of order of events, beliefs of the offender and of the victim.
These elements are so compared to the typographies and a profile is generated.
Disquisitional Evaluation
Top down profiling is reductionist every bit the nomenclature system (organised/disorganised) is too simple. Offenders are not simply either disorganised or organised. It may be that in that location are both organised and disorganised features to all their crimes. An offender may start off beingness disorganised and become more organised as they develop their modus operandi.
Top Down typology can just exist applied to sexually motivated serial killers; because of the limitations of the originally sample that they interviewed: - sexually motivated serial killers!).
This approach assumes that the criminal behavior will reflect characteristics of the offender and will remain stable over fourth dimension and across offences; however criminals modify over their criminal careers. They might change their modus operandi (the way they operate) as they become more forensically aware for example to avoid detection. However, research shows that more fundamental aspects of the crimes remain adequately stable over time because they are linked to motivation and needs, this is what Canter chosen "central narrative themes".
This theory is deterministic every bit it assumes that the offender'due south beliefs is shaped by stable personality traits only Alison et al. (2002) argues that the offender's behavior is the result of circuitous interaction of many factors such as context and interaction with the victim and so is not stable and anticipated.
Furthermore, Alison et al. (2003) also questions the assumptions that similar types of offenders volition commit crime in a similar way. Mokros and Alison (2002) compared criminal behavior, background and criminal history of 100 British male rapists. They plant that rapists who offended in similar means did not share any of these characteristics.
The data on which the arroyo is based is unreliable every bit it was gained from the interview of offenders who are very manipulative; this raises questions about the validity of the data obtained. However the interviewers too had a very thorough briefing of the facts which helped them detect deception. Furthermore, the data was obtained from American men this questions the generalisability of the findings and the theory based on this data to other cultures and to women.
The typologies organised disorganised offenders has been challenged by Canter (2004) who analysed the data of 100 murders in the Us using "smaller space assay". He found that there was support for the organised typology simply no support for the disorganised typology. This undermines the classification organisation.
According to Holmes (1998) the acme-down arroyo has contributed to arrest in but 17% of the cases in which information technology was used. This is even so a valuable contribution as it is used in very serious cases where lives are at risk.
Bottom Upward – The British Approach
This approach was pioneered by psychologists David Amble and Paul Britton working with the constabulary. Canter (1990) is the U.k.'s foremost profiling expert; his lesser-upwards approach looks for consistencies in offenders' behavior during the crime. Amble's about famous case is that of the 'Railway Rapist' John Duffy.
John Duffy carried out 24 sexual attacks and 3 murders of women nigh railway stations in North London in the 1980s. David Canter analysed the geographical details and the testify and drew up a surprisingly accurate profile. Still, it should be noted that the profile didn't directly lead to John Duffy's arrest.
The bottom-upward arroyo is data-driven; the profile is constructed based on the association betwixt particular characteristics of the offence and of the offender. It started by an individual analysis of individual crimes and series of crimes. Canter then started to statistically analyse solved crime and identified clusters of events and behaviors that occur together (smallest place analysis). From this analysis he derived typologies.
A crucial concept of this approach is interpersonal coherence, the way an offender behaves while committing a crime, due east.g. the mode they interact with the victim, reflects the way they behave and interact in their everyday life.
A 2nd central concept of Canter'southward theory is spatial consistency. He makes the assumption that offenders operate in areas that they know well. Canter and Larkin (1993) proposed ii categories of offenders:
- Marauders: they commit their crimes shut to where they live and feel secure.
- Commuters: they commit their crimes away from where they usually alive and over large areas.
This has been the base of geographical profiling. Geographical Profiling is used to make inferences about where an offender is likely to live. This is also known as crime mapping.
Circle Theory of Environmental Range
Amble and Larkin (1993) proposed the circumvolve theory of ecology range. This is based on the study of many cases which showed that if a circumvolve is drawn that encompasses all linked crimes, the offender will be based somewhere within the circle.
Rossmo (2000) suggests that in general criminals offend close to their homes (or other base of operations e.g. workplace) and the number of offences drops off with increasing distance from the base of operations. This is supported by Godwin and Canter (1997) institute that 85 % of the offenders they studied lived within the circle encompassing their offences.
It is more than difficult to geographically profile commuters, although when investigators were looking at the disappearance and murder of iv young girls from unlike and seemingly unrelated areas of Britain in the 1980s, the dumping of the bodies in laybys next to major A roads (including Twycross, only up the road) led to a break through. It was realised that his likely occupation was commitment driver, giving him access to a van/lorry for easy transportation and led to him 'commuting' all over the country, travelling along A roads.
Disquisitional Evaluation
Geographical profiling has back up; Godwin and Canter (1997) found that 85 % of the offenders they studied lived inside the circle encompassing their offences. However, Koscis and Irwin found that but 50% of burglars lived in the circle defined by their offences. Snook et al (2005) examined the offence locations of 53 series murderers in Germany and found that in 63% of cases the killer lived within half dozen miles of where the bodies were institute.
This approach can provide useful information to assist the constabulary in narrowing their search. However, it requires accurate data on the offences committed in a particular area and this might exist a problem with under-reporting of crimes by the public, the recording of crimes by the police could also limit the effectiveness of this method.
Unlike the top-down approach, investigative psychology can exist applied to a wide range of offences. It has been used in burglary and car crime.
Investigative psychology is more scientific than the top-down approach as it is based on psychological theories and inquiry. Yet, like the meridian-down approach, investigative psychology is based on research carried out in Western societies so information technology might not apply to other cultures without modifications.
Psychological profiles based on this approach have enabled the police to catch offenders in a number of high-profile cases including that of John Duffy. Such cases have attracted a high caste of media attention however there has too been spectacular failures such as Rachel Nickel'south killer.
Copson (1995) carried out a survey of detectives who had worked with offender profiling found that the advice given in the profile merely helped to take hold of the offender in 3% of the cases. Nevertheless information technology was found to exist useful in 83% of the cases where it had been used but it only offered direct assist in solving the criminal offence in 14 percent of the cases.
One of the issues seems to come from a lack of consistency in the British approach. In that location are a number of individuals in the UK providing psychological profiles for the police force with unlike backgrounds in psychology and psychiatry, each using their own approach.
How to reference this article:
How to reference this article:
Brookes, E. (2021, July 22). Offender Profiling explained. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/offender-profiling.html
APA Way References
Alison, 50., Bennell, C., Mokros, A., & Ormerod, D. (2002). The personality paradox in offender profiling: A theoretical review of the processes involved in deriving background characteristics from crime scene actions. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 8(i), 115.
Alison, L., Smith, Yard. D., Eastman, O., & Rainbow, L. (2003). Toulmin's philosophy of statement and its relevance to offender profiling. Psychology, Crime & Law, 9(2), 173-183.
Canter, D. (2004). Offender profiling and investigative psychology.
Canter, D. 5., Alison, 50. J., Alison, East., & Wentink, N. (2004). The organized/disorganized typology of serial murder: Myth or model?. Psychology, Public Policy, and Police force, x(three), 293.
Canter, D., & Larkin, P. (1993). The environmental range of serial rapists. Journal of environmental psychology, thirteen(1), 63-69.
Copson, G., Badcock, R., Boon, J., & Britton, P. (1997). Articulating a systematic approach to clinical criminal offence profiling.
Godwin, One thousand., & Amble, D. (1997). Encounter and death: The spatial beliefs of US serial killers. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management.
Hazelwood and Douglas (1980) – 'The Lust Murderer'. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 49(iv), 18-22.
Holmes, R. M., & Holmes, S. T. (1998). Serial murder. Sage Publications, Inc.
Ressler, R. Thousand., Douglas, J. E., Groth, A. N., & Burgess, A. W. (1980). Offender profiles: A multidisciplinary approach. FBI law enforcement bulletin, 49(9), 16-20.
Kocsis, R. N., Hayes, A. F., & Irwin, H. J. (2002). Investigative experience and accurateness in psychological profiling of a violent law-breaking. Periodical of Interpersonal Violence, 17(8), 811-823.
Mokros, A., & Alison, L. J. (2002). Is offender profiling possible? Testing the predicted homology of crime scene actions and background characteristics in a sample of rapists. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 7(1), 25-43.
Snook, B., Zito, M., Bennell, C., & Taylor, P. J. (2005). On the complication and accuracy of geographic profiling strategies. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 21(1), ane-26.
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